What makes a good leader?? Over the past three years I have had the responsibility of running a week long Leadership Training program for teenagers at an Arts Camp. My search for material and resources on this subject did not yield many results. Leadership training manuals from other organizations didn’t seem to fit the bill, either being generally impractical for the needs of teenage leaders, or tied to tired, old formulae of "ice breakers" and "leadership styles" genre. While leadership skills were often listed, there was little information or few activities designed to help future leaders attain those skills effectively. So, over the years I have had to piece together my own program, giving a great deal of thought to the question of leadership skills and development.

One of the early things that I learned was what does not constitute leadership development. As a teacher with over 20 years of experience there are also things that I learned about students in general. I have learned that teaching them organizational skills, study habits, writing skills etc. has a very limited effect on academic performance. What constitutes a good student is his/her sense of awareness and reality along with self-worth and confidence. All of the information in the world is going to be of minimal use if the student is undergoing intense family problems, or has damaged self esteem, or has a picture of reality which doesn’t trust the system. The snap shot of the individual as a person, -their emotional balance, their hang-ups and their assumptions, -that is the most important factor whether you are looking at academic success, leadership skills, or just about anything else. Whatever band-aids are applied, a student whose reality sees no reason to be motivated or view education as a priority is not going to make much progress, even though he or she could recite perfectly and with total understanding the reasons why they should act differently.

Leadership development works in a similar way. Learning about brainstorming, conflict management or leadership styles will not make a good leader. They are valid tools to be used by some leaders. However a sharp scalpel does not make a good doctor, nor does any other fancy equipment. Good leadership depends on an individual’s sense of reality and awareness. This is not to say that certain leadership situations do not have important protocols of which leaders must be perfectly knowledgeable. However, even the effectiveness of applying those protocols will depend on much more than just familiarity with them.

The best leadership training resources that I eventually found, fell into two categories.

(1.) Programs that provided intense experiences, such as Project Adventure, and (2.) programs that involved intense paradigm shifts to enable the individual to view situations from a broader perspective. In the end, these were the two approaches which guided my program. I knew that the activity and experience-oriented learning would be essential with teenagers, however I was a little surprised by the degree of enthusiasm which they showed when exposed to other paradigms and perspectives. In the first year, it became quickly clear that they were looking for a meaningful framework which would ground the material they were learning, give it relevance, and tie it together in a meaningful package. In the second year I tried to provide that for them through a modification of the old group dynamics model that employs "forming, norming, storming, etc.". The next section outlines this new model of group evolution and begins to present activities that go along with each stage.

Before outlining the theory of leadership stages, I want to credit and acknowledge the many theories that have shaped and pushed this leadership theory into existence.

The first which I drew upon was the "forming, norming, storming..." model referenced in many of the books I discovered about leadership. (I have included the bibliography of these books at the conclusion of this article.) When combined with some of the following credits, thought, it became clear that this model was incomplete.

I knew that there had to be more than what was originally presented and discovered the additional steps when looking at Gudjieff’s "law of octaves". This law states that all developmental processes evolve like a musical scale, with eight distinct steps. Therefore I looked for and found eight steps in the development of a group and the associated leadership skills. (I should add that turning to this theory was not a whim, but rather the result of years of study which cannot really be done justice in the context of this article. I have included books in the bibliography if the reader wants to pursue this point.) Also, as I shall explain in detail later on, the law of octaves has, in its developmental process, two intrinsic barriers that become critical to the development of a group and to the responsibilities of a leader. Knowledge and study of the Native American Medicine Wheel corresponded to this viewpoint exactly and also contributed to the overall theory.

The concept of Coyote Teaching must be attributed to the teachings of Tom Brown Jr. and to a student of his, John Young. It is to them that I owe the central idea that true leadership and mentoring has as its goal the expansion of awareness and brain activity.

Figure 1 outlines a continuum which ties the type of leadership to the situation in which it is needed. At the left end, representing more simple involvement, leadership is reduced by circumstances to a position of supervision. The baby sitter, class monitor or even most camp counselors have as their primary role effective supervision. Safety is a central concern. Protocols, policies and procedures are in place to guide supervision. Leadership, in this situation, consists of being familiar with and prepared to carry out these procedures. It is mainly about making decisions that insure safety and recognize an accountability to a higher authority figure. The personal growth of the person being cared for is, at best, a very distant secondary concern. Seldom are these types of leaders called on to inspire those in their care.

At the other end of the continuum is the mentor. This could be the teacher, the sensei, the group or youth leader, or perhaps just a friend or relative taking on this role for a particular individual. Characteristically, they spend a longer span of time with their adherents. They should be providing inspiration. They should be concerned with the personal growth of those people they are leading. Politicians should be inspiring people and leading their community to greater fulfillment. Leaders don’t just facilitate and follow protocols. They lead somewhere, -hopefully to a better condition.

Of course, as a continuum, there is lots of space in the middle. It is not valid to say that a camp councilor can’t be an inspiration, or perhaps even a mentor for the duration of the relationship. And, of course, even mentors have to follow protocols with regards to safety responsibilities. Time plays an important role here. A supervisor is not able to let people make mistakes, while a mentor make take a much longer view and permit people to learn from their own blunders. For example, in a camp situation you may not want campers to stay up late at night because you have a set agenda for the next day. However, if you have people in many camping settings, over a period of years, you can wait for the penny to drop by letting campers suffer on the day after a late night.

Supervisors shouldn’t try too hard to be mentors and mentors shouldn’t try too hard to be supervisors.

I have distinguished eight stages in group development and have attempted to relate leadership styles and skills to each level. The first three are the levels where a majority of "leaders" spend much of their time. They are also the levels that relate most strongly to the "Supervisor"end of the leadership continuum. This is not to say that they can be skipped. All groups necessarily go through these stages. Many don’t make it to level four.

Forming:

When a group first comes together, there are all sorts of issues that the people must deal with. It is not a group, but rather a number of individuals, -even when the participants may know each other. At its best, a group becomes a Gestalt, -more than the sum of its parts, where the individuality is respected but is also used to further the good of the larger entity known as the group. The relationship between the independent part and the unified collective is seen everywhere in Nature, from the cells in our body, to the activity of Slime Mould. A liver cell isn’t any less a liver cell because it is part of an entire body. In fact, if it stopped being a liver cell, the collective would suffer. Individuality is important and contributes to the overall strength of the Gestalt of the group.

The role of the Forming stage is to begin the bonding process that eventually creates a cohesive group. Beginnings are traditionally (on the Nave American Medicine Wheel) a time for setting directions and priorities using one’s intuitions. It is a good time for a mission statement or an understanding of goals. It is a time of exuberance, energy and enthusiasm. It is the time when the largest number of people potentially opt out of a group, -and in some cases that is desirable.

This is a point where the leader is in a critical and high profile position. At this stage, they embody the group. Even if people are brought together by a common interest or goal, it is rare that a group galvanizes without the express direction of one or more leadership figures.

"Breaking the ice" is a common leadership duty at this point. Members need to get to know one another and overcome any awkward beginnings. Membership needs to be affirmed for all through a positive and encouraging attitude which makes people feel welcome. Activities can be planned that help break down mental and physical barriers between people. This is also a time when you show people your best "stuff". Enthusiasm and a very high quality of performance is necessary to convince people that they have made the right decision joining the group and that it is going to successfully meet their goals and those of others. The leader should put extra energy into these things, even if they taper off later. A leader should view him or herself as being a bridge between people, creating introductions and links, weaving interactive connections between people. This can be done by engaging two people in conversation at the same time, planning common experiences and pointing out shared interests

Many groups have ceremonies or initiations upon entering. These are sometimes meant to be "ice breaking" activities, but more often have a psychological purpose. Research has shown that if you can make somebody do something voluntarily that they would not otherwise have done, it validates the group. People think that they must have had a good reason for doing it, therefor they must really want to belong to this group. Psychologists call this "cognitive dissonance". While it may play a role in many ceremonies, it should not be utilized in a manipulative way. An initiation ceremony for a gang, such as robbing a house or beating an individual, is very high in cognitive dissonance, and should be suspect as a form of brainwashing or mind control. An initiation for a club, where a person may have to do something silly, may have the same trappings, but in the end the person retains control of their own decision making. In general, if done with respect for the members, ceremonies can provide a valuable focus for new membership and can effectively reflect ideas or values that may be difficult to put into words. Good ceremonies, as with good dance and music, have always tried to convey concepts that go beyond words.

There are may supervisory jobs at this point for the leader. If there are routines or rules, such as at a camp, these must be introduced. (If there is a longer period of time involved, rules should ideally be developed jointly between the leader and the group so that the group sees the relevance of the rules. They are then more likely to follow them.)

1. Introduction to a variety of "ice Breaking" games and activities

2. Empathy exercises to help the leader understand the position and feelings of those who are shy or different and who are not finding it easy to enter the group

3. Addressing the importance of the Gestalt and the "unity within diversity" concept.

4. Discussing and developing a number of anchor points for affirming the leader’s role and authority within the group at this early stage.

5. Planning activities that promote enthusiasm and which allow the group to share enthusiastic energy. Being the role model for this energy.

Norming:

Once a group is formed it automatically goes through a process of organizing itself. This happens on two levels. The first is the overt level, which involves the goals and proposed actions of the group. The second is the covert level, which involves the social organization of the members. Who are the top dogs? What relationships or cliques might arise. Who gets picked on? The leader must be sensitive to both these levels and must be prepared and skilled in channelling developing situations in productive directions.

Groups form to pursue goals, whether they be to just have fun or to reach a specific achievement. The goals for a camp group would be to maximize fun while still adhering to the principles of the camp. Other groups may wish to do charity fund raising or learn a particular skill. Groups that get together and never evolve goals usually don’t remain together for very long. -Or they develop unhealthy goals, such as the gang mentality of defending territory or fighting for gang acceptance. A goal, of sorts, will always emerge if the group does not disintegrate.

Leaders can try to establish these goals in several ways. If it is a formal group, goal statements or mission statements can be officially discussed and recorded. Brainstorming techniques can then be followed to find ways of reaching the goal. In a less formal group, like a camp, it can be done at more opportune times. Conversation around a campfire or a story time at night can be good times. The "thorns & roses" ceremony at the end of each day, where campers discuss the good and bad parts of the day, provides campers with an opportunity in what ways their personal goals and needs are being met. Group goals can also be defined by defining "limits" of group behaviour. When talking about rules and why they are necessary, a good leader can bring out for discussion the goals that many may just take for granted, and discuss how the rules may help them reach those goals. In fact, if rules and goals can be linked effectively, that is one of the best situation one could hope for. Rules and expectations are always best if they are framed by mutually beneficial reasons and understandings. They are then more likely to be obeyed and respected.

The leader also has a responsibility at this stage to guide the formation of roles within a group. Natural leaders and dominant personalities will emerge within the group, and these individuals must be guided to show good leadership. Dominating a group is some people’s way of meeting their personal neurotic needs. Such characters must not be allowed to become too influential or gather around them too powerful a clique. Leadership and campers showing initiative within a group can be a very good think, as long as it is not at the expense of other group members. Leaders need to assert their own authority and use it to mediate the creation of any major hierarchies within the group. Similarly, it is not uncommon for a group to find one member to pick on. This "scapegoat" is often the brunt of the group’s frustration or guilt. The person is picked on to make other people look good or to relieve tension. Such a person is often different or withdrawn. It is the leader’s responsibility to step in and prevent this from happening as early as possible. Exposing the scapegoating for what it is sometimes helps if you have a group that is stronger. Building awareness and sensitivity in the group can sometimes shift the attitude of a strong group. Often, however, weak and psychologically needy members of the group use scapegoats to make themselves look better. In those cases it is necessary to take more direct action. Sometimes educating everyone else in the group besides the bully will do the trick as it removes the audience. Sometimes it is necessary for the leader to assert his or her own authority and forbid the activity. One would certainly o that in any cases where physical or psychological abuse would come into play at all. You would do it in any cases of racism or sexism. Above all else, the leader is a role model. How you respond to such a situation will communicate the degree of acceptance and tolerance you place on such behaviours. Group members may actually be relieved that someone has stepped in and firmly put an end to the problem.

Roles will always develop within a group. The leader’s job is to make those roles inclusive of all members and as positive as possible. Techniques such as "structuring positive interdependence" and finding creative ways to "blow off steam" are important tools. They can be found in "Teaching Students to Be Peacemakers" by Johnson & Johnson, found in the bibliography.

Eventually the unavoidable evolution of roles within the group is going to create a level of strife. Sometimes this comes from a divergence of goals. People have differing interpretations of goals or argue about the means to achieve them. On the other hand, sometimes the storming comes from personal differences between members.

Each step in this evolution of group stages rests strongly on the one preceding it. If the Leader has done a good job establishing and discussion goals, there is less likely for there to be any confusion around the goals at this stage. Storming may be minor. If not, then some damage control is very necessary, which may involve mediation skills. (Refer to Appendix 1, from Johnson & Johnson.)

At this point members may also go through a crisis of meaning. Do they still believe in the goals? -Especially now that the real work is probably starting. Is the group a novelty and diversion, or is the commitment sincere? Leaders can remind people of their goals in order to rekindle the enthusiasm that existed before. Sometimes the goals have become distant and uninspiring. Leaders may be charged with the task of bringing the goals to life again perhaps through some kind of project, ceremony or activity. Individuals may not see goals as relevant to them any more, and anything that a leader can do to reestablish that connection is his or her duty. In some cases, people discover that their original interest was not genuine, and it may better if they disconnect from the group.

Similarly, if the leader has done a good job of curtailing negative roles within the group form the beginning, the Storming stage will likely be less intense. Mediation of personal problems between members is the responsibility of the leader (or perhaps some other member who is qualified to do it). This would include skills in negotiating resolutions of conflicts and helping members control anger and other negative emotions. Leaders should attempt to learn these skills and practice them in role playing exercises and by learning the steps of proper negotiation. However, the bottom line is still that the role modelling provided by the leader is likely to have a huge impact on the members.

In any event, this is a critical stage in which the leader must be very aware and active. It is a pivotal point for a group. If the storming stage is successfully navigated, the group will go on to bigger and better things. If not, it will likely stagnate at this stage and eventually disband.

We can learn some things about the importance of this stage in the overall evolution of a group by looking at two lessons about process. The first is the Native American Medicine Wheel. The four directions of the Medicine Wheel symbolize the four stages in the cycle of things: east, south, west and north. In the context of a day, it corresponds to midnight, dawn, noon and dusk. In the context of a year, it corresponds to spring, summer, winter and fall. In the context of humans, it corresponds to infancy, youth, maturity and old age. The Medicine Wheel is a very powerful symbol which I have come to respect and use as an advisor in many situations.

One of the characteristics of the Medicine Wheel is a property of the West. This, the third stage, is a time of consolidation and preparation. It is best demonstrated by the squirrel preparing for winter. When Fall arrives, the squirrel knows that it is time to prepare for the future by gathering food. If it does a sufficient job, then the winter becomes a time of dormancy and rest before a new cycle begins the following spring. If the squirrel does not prepare sufficiently, then the winter truly becomes the end and the animal dies. The north or the Medicine Wheel can be either an interlude before another go round the cycle, or it can be a final resting place depending on what action is taken in the previous season. All processes have these critical, pivotal times where action or inaction has a decisive impact on future development.

Storming is a time of consolidation and conflict. Sometimes goals of the group are reassessed, and sometimes individual goals have to be reassessed. As said earlier, if the group deals successfully with the storming it gets to go around the Medicine Wheel at least one more time. If not, then its evolution ceases and it is only a matter of time before it dissolves.

The second lesson about process comes from the "Law of Octaves", which apparently dates back to Pythagoras. In a musical scale (do, re, me..) there are three notes and then a semitone before the scale continues. This semitone, states the "Law of Octaves", is symbolic of a natural barrier to evolution between the third and forth stages. This barrier can only be overcome by some kind of strong external "shock" or force, designed to kick start the group and get it back on track. It is the leader’s job to administer that "shock". It can be done by manufacturing some kind of crisis, or other need for drastic action which will galvanize the group. It can be done by initiating an intense (but relatively short) project. It can be done by providing information that will lead to members viewing things in a different way.

The fundamental requirements for this "shock" are that it

1. ...cause the member to redefine their relationship to the group

2. ...involve an intense amount of emotional or physical energy

3. ...result in a growth of awareness on the part of the members.

Only after this rededication to group goals can the group continue to develop and can the leader move on to a whole new set of leadership skills. For many people this rededication is almost like taking the goals seriously and realizing that they never really took them seriously during the first three stages. With it comes a feeling of confidence and elation, along with new reserves of energy. This group is now ready to dynamically tackle its real goals.

At this point the role of the leader begins to shift more dramatically from supervisor to mentor. Up till now, the leader has often had to take centre stage to deal with situations, and provide a lot of his or her own energy to keep the process going. Although the job is not less important now, the leader does need to get off the stage, and can start dealing with the group’s energy rather than his or her own.

With the new role of mentor comes an entirely new set of leadership skills sometimes known as "coyote teaching". This can be described as "teaching without teaching" and "leading without leading". The techniques are designed to shift responsibility to the members of the group. The coyote was the "trickster" in Native legends, and coyote teaching is, in fact, a way of tricking people into learning. Furthermore, it always involves stimulation of critical thinking, problem solving and awareness.

A very basic example of coyote teaching to produce awareness of the natural environment is to emphasize a danger, such as mountain lions. (Thanks to John Young’s lectures for inspiring this example.) The leader could tell stories about mountain lions, point out tracks or sign (sometimes, perhaps, being less than 100% honest), and describe in detail the way mountain lions can feel the bones of the neck using special nerves in the tips of their teeth. The leader then could outline specific things that must be observed in the environment for the sake of safety. Exposed to such inputs, the members of the group are likely to have a very heightened awareness, admittedly fuelled by fear. I have used a similar tactic with poison ivy.

There is a possibility that this tactic can backfire. It is, of course, the responsibility of the leader to judge the readiness of a group for this kind of learning. There is the risk of members collapsing into a paranoid or terrified heap if they do not feel that they have at least the beginning of the skills necessary to cope with the situation. By this point in a group’s development a good leader has a thorough understanding of each member, able to understand their particular strengths, weaknesses and needs. Using this understanding, the leader decides on their strategy for coyote teaching. ...Because it is a strategy!! Coyote teaching is not frivolous. It requires deep understanding, thorough planning and a big bag of tricks.